A Detailed Review of Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications of Metallic Nanoparticles

Abstract

Nanotechnology is a rapidly evolving interdisciplinary domain that focuses on the design, synthesis, and application of materials at the nanoscale. Central to this field are nanoparticles, typically ranging from 1 to 100 nanometres in size, which can be classified into inorganic, organic, ceramic, and carbon-based categories. Inorganic nanoparticles are further divided into metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, whereas carbon-based nanoparticles encompass structures such as fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, graphene, carbon nanofibers, and carbon black. Nanoparticles are synthesized using two primary strategies: top-down and bottom-up approaches. This review explores various synthesis methodologies, including chemical, physical, and green synthesis routes. A comprehensive overview of characterization techniques is presented, including UV-Visible spectroscopy for optical properties, FT-IR spectroscopy for functional group identification, and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) for surface morphology. To provide a holistic understanding, the review also includes X-ray Diffraction (XRD) for crystalline structure analysis, Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) for detailed size and shape evaluation, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis for surface area determination, and Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) for assessing hydrodynamic size, zeta potential, and colloidal stability. In the present manuscript, we have discussed the pros and cons of each technique to understand their role in the characterization of nanoparticles. Review article also explored the application of green synthesized nanoparticle in targeted drug delivery, photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants, water bioremediation, and cosmetic formulations. In summary, present review explored the importance of green synthesis method over other chemical and physical method. The green synthesized nanoparticles can serve as pivotal components across sectors such as healthcare, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and electronics.